Marine Biology 278

Feb. 11, 2008             REVIEW OUTLINE--EXAM I

           

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY of OCEANOGRAPHY —know these; see also READINGS at end of outline:

            4. Challenger  expedition 1872--> 3 years around globe. Why important?

            5. First Marine Labs: founded 1870s-1910s (skip details, just know general era)

            7. 1940s-70s:  why rapid growth in marine exploration ? What major advances?

            9. mid90s-2000:  why a new burst of marine exploration ? What major advances?

            10. NOW: what is the current status of marine science? What major advances are underway or planned?

I. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 A. TECTONIC/GEOLOGICAL FACTORS: -->Generalize topographies of oceans

  PLATE TECTONICS as unifying theory--know basic features, major examples of these, especially Washington state coastal!!!:

       1. Spreading Centers/Rifts           2. Collisions: Subduction Zones/Trenches; --land-to-seafloor and seafloor-seafloor

       4. Hot  Spots --island/seamount chains: how form   

*READ: Discovery of "new" Seamounts etc. from satellite data.

       * BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS --energy/nutrients for foodwebs; habitat creation/destruction (e.g., terranes, tsunamis). Distinguish long vs short-term.

 

 B. SURFACE FACTORS (geological and biological)

       1.Rock:  a) Geologically produced (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic);

            b) Biologically produced--limestone and other CaCO3 forms

----------- 2004: asphalt flow in the deep

       2. Sediments *SIZE Categories: Cobbles > Sand > Silt > Clay (Clay + Silt = MUD)

          a. Lithogenous--land erosion (& volcanoes)

          b. Biogenous--how form:  i) calcarious; ii) siliceous                 

       3. Hydrogenous formations: know how each forms, composition, where found -- some may be BIOGENOUS

                   i) Metal sulfide precipitates at hydrothermal vent areas

                   ii) Manganese nodules;     iii) Methane hydrates/carbonate rocks--see READING

SUMMARY DIAGRAM showing distributions of sediments, formations in ocean and WHY

          * Biological implications  makes different benthic habitat types; energy sources (details later)

 

C. MOVEMENT FACTORS

       1. WAVES, Wind-Driven or earth-movement-driven (tsunami):  *Energy distribution=L/2; how leads to cresting/crashing on shoreline

          * Biological implications:   i) wave shock damage

                ii) help determine surface type: mud, sand, rock                  iii) mixed layer--later

       2. CURENTS: VERTICAL CURRENTS

          a. Wind-Driven SURFACE Currents:  *WINDS and the CORIOLIS EFFECT: Know how sun, earth's rotation and Coriolis lead to wind "cells" and the TRADE, WESTERLY and POLAR Easterlies Wind Belts! Then: water pushed to right (or left in S.hemi.) of wind due to EKMAN effect--how all this creates CURRENT BELT and the GYRES.

                 -->know MAJOR GYRE patterns of all oceans, including NAMES of N. Pacific currents, the Gulf Stream in the N. Atlantic, and the BELT = Antarctic Circumpolar

                 -->COMPLICATIONS: what are EDDIES and how do they form?

          b. Wind-driven Vertical Currents:

                i) UPWELLING: how caused by winds at shoreline; EKMAN effect!                      ii) DOWNWELLING

          c. THERMOHALINE Curents = Vertical density-driven currents

                --how polar downwelling creates deep waters of the oceans; + upwelling near Antarctica, equator!

          d. Abyssal Currents/Storms--?? later

 

    *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS of CURRENTS:

----create major land Climate belts

i) Surface gyres--major distribution patterns of plankton; moderation of climate            

ii) Upwelling: nutrient restoration! Know key areas from lecture

iii) Downwelling takes O2 deep--prevents stagnation in the deep sea

 

3. TIDES (Gravity-rotation-driven wave)
 a) LUNAR Gravity, Earth-Moon Centrifugal effect --how these create 2 opposite bulges;

And how b) SOLAR Tides --later; briefly: c) Lunar-orbit precession creates High-Lows, Low-Highs, etc.

D. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS

    1. LIGHT:  a. Depth--exponential decrease with Wavelength variation--red vs. blue-green absorbance!!  Open Ocean vs. Coastal: often green or murky brown in coastal waters

          b. Latitude & seasonal variation; e.g., up to 24-hr light in polar summers

          c. UV--most absorbed by ozone layer, but some makes it to surface--double exposure at shore due to water reflection

        *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS:  i) photosynthesis: why chlorophyll of limited use; ii) vision and

         bioluminescence best at blue-green wavelengths; iii) UV damage to DNA -- thymidine dimers

    2. Temperature: a. Depth variation: thermocline in warm areas; cold areas more uniform

       b. Latitude & seasonal variation; distortion of simple latitudinal pattern by upwelling                 
c. Long-term variation: El Ni–os, changing sealevel with Ice Ages, Global warming--Florida example

    *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS:

         1) Few extremes compared to land (exceptions=hotspring vents; seaice extremophiles); Lack of severe cold allows for polar marine life to be much more prolific than polar land life           
      2) Basic Temperature effects on biological reaction kinetics: optima! Know the basics of the plot!

         3) Indirect WARMING effects: i) less O2 dissolving; ii) sealevel rise; and iii) suppressed downwelling--less O2 to deep + climate effects

 

   3. DENSITY:  combination of temperature & salinity
FW floats on SW; Warm water floats on colder; Ice floats; Salt lowers Freezing Pt

    *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: i) buoyancy problems: protein, skeletons/shells are denser than seawater;  ii) Freezing points    

4. Hydrostatic PRESSURE

        DEPTH--1 atm per 10m:   e.g. MARIANA Trench/Challenger Deep ~ 11,000m so Pressure =_____??

E. CHEMICAL FACTORS

       1. Water: key properties for life, from textbook
2. IONS, MAJOR--Know  major ions, but donŐt memorize order except for Cl, Na; and

          * BIOLOGICAL ROLES  from TABLE for Na+, Cl-, SO4=, Ca++, K+, HCO3-

       3. MINOR/TRACE SOLUTES: nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, iron forms in water;

          * BIOLOGICAL ROLES from TABLE for all of these! Can be limiting factors; e.g., nitrate in N. central oceans, IRON in S. central oceans. Plans to fertilize the oceans with iron: what is proposed, what problems might arise! READING

       4. SALINITY:  a. How measured (%o, mM); general seawater contents, average 35%o. Also MOLARITY (M or mM) and OSMOTIC PRESSURE (mOsm)--NaCl example for all three measures

          b. Altered by: freshwater (rivers, icemelt, rain) or evaporation --examples

          *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: i) Freezing point and   ii) Osmotic Balance: "higher" vertebrates vs. most other organisms –know the differences!

       5. GASES: 

          a. Oxygen--(i) solubility : 0-10 ml O2 / liter of water vs. 210 ml in liter air

                 (ii) Depth--oxygen mimimum or dead zones: more later   (iii) Temperature--warming DECREASES solubility

          b. CO2: Air: 0.00001 moles/liter;  Water: 0.002 moles/liter as HCO3-

                *Solubility and the H20 reaction! know equation and its implications in forming ACID!

          *BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS: 

              Oxygen: i) needed for respiration; ii) Minimum or DEAD zones: limiting factor

             CO2: i) for photosynthesis; ii) buffering; iii) carbonate in shells; ACID can dissolve

    CLIMATE CHANGE concerns: 1) TEMPERATURE: heats the Earth! Know how greenhouse effect works and new concerns; 2) ACIDIFICATION!

F. BIOTIC FACTORS--how organisms in the environment interact

       1. Predation & other foodweb interactions -- define broadly, e.g., herbivores prey on producers

       2. Competition--rivals for space, mates, other resources                                        ;+/- or -/-

       3. Mutualism; +/+

       4. Parasitism/disease : +/-

       5. Commensalism/Amensalism: +/0  and 0/0

II. MARINE ECOLOGY: HIGHER LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
A. POPULATION--know definition; B. COMMUNITY level--know definition
C. ECOSYSTEM level: regional/habitat communities with all abiotic & biotic components
1. ABIOTIC Components: many, but the essential are:
--a. ENERGY: must be renewed because energy is lost as unusable heat: Energy lost at each food-chain step is 80-90%. *2 forms:
---- i) Solar Light--photosynthesi;s ii) Geochemical--chemosynthesis & reduced mineral energy
-- b. NUTRIENTS & water--not lost but must be recycled through "biogeochemical cycles"
2. BIOTIC Components: TROPHIC Interactions = Foodwebs
-- Know Marine vs Land; why complex due to microscopic producers and filter feeders; with 4 or more levels in the oceans often

QUANTITATIVE ECOSYSTEM TERMS: 1. Abundance (and Productivity); 2. Richness; 3. Diversity -- know DEFINITIONS
--What determines ABUNDANCE/RICHNESS/DIVERSITY?
1. ABUNDANCE/Productivity--LIMITING FACTORS i) Energy & ii) Nutrients--why important! Examples of habitats iii) Other harsh abiotic, biotic factors, e.g., Temperature--freezing as crucial threshold
2. RICHNESS & DIVERSITY: know concept, example of each
-- a. Temporal Stability Hypothesis
-- b. Spatial Heterogeneity Hypothesis
-- c. Disturbance Hypotheses! how INTERMEDIATE differs from SEVERE disturbances in affecting diversity
-- d. Energy-flow Hypothesis: briefly
--e. AREA Hypothesis (island effect)

D. BIOSPHERE level: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES--Global recycling
4 possible recycling paths: i) Fast Surface loop in mixed layer; ii) Upwelling Loop= sinking and upwelling; iii) Tectonic loop via subduction, uplift -- rock/soil or volcanoes; iv) Tectonic loop at rift / ridge --vents, lava
EXAMPLES--Major Ions: recycled every 10 million years via cycles iii) & iv) including erosion: know basic cation and anion pathways
--C, H, N, O, P, S cycle through all four pathways--KNOW THESE:
----Carbon: know pathways i)ii)iii) including atmospheric CO2 plus limestone, chalk, oil, methane and CaCO3 skeletons/shells
----Phosphorus: know pathways i)ii)iii), including bird guano and CaPO4 bone

III. ORGANISMAL MARINE BIOLOGY-- MARINE LIFE

A. DOMAINS, KINGDOMS:   Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia  -- Know basics of each

*Extremophiles: New discoveries

*VIRUSES: very common; may kill and thus recycle up to 25% of marine organic material

B. TROPHIC ROLES

 1. Producers: = Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista (Micro, Macroalgae), Plantae.  Basic Autotroph mechanisms

All need Process 1: *Energy & *inorganic H+ e- source to make NADPH, ATP from NADP, ADP;

    *PHOTOSYNTHESIS: uses *light and *H/e source = HnX (examples: H2O, H2S)

    *CHEMOSYNTHESIS: use *oxidation of H-e source = reduced geochemicals e.g., H2S + O2

Process 2: CO2 and other inorganic nutrients: NADPH and ATP used to convert them to organic molecules

RUBISCO used by all to fix CO2

2. Decomposers: = Archaea, Eubacteria, Fungi!!

* basic equations of heterotrophy using organic matter with oxidizers: Know equations for O2, SO4, as oxidizers! Pathway for denitrifiers

3. Consumers: = Protista (Protozoa) and Animalia!

C. ADAPTATION: Interactions of organisms with abiotic/biotic factors lead to adaptation

*Species adapt WITH these types of features/strategies (some overlap among): know example of each

1) Mechanical/Anatomical;   2) Physiological/Biochemical               3) Behavioral;              4) Lifecycle

*Two very different time courses of adaptation:

    1) Within lifetime: El Ni–o example! Migratory fish and squid left (survived); seals starved

    2) Evolutionary time: new adaptations from natural selection = different genes. EXAMPLE of LDH/temperature adaptation

*KEY PRINCIPLES of Adaptation

1. Co-evolution: how this causes ongoing adaptations. VIDEO example of snail shells and crab claws/fish jaws

2. Cost/benefit tradeoffs:  "Enough but not too much" Principle! EXAMPLES!

                  Concept that many adaptations cost energy, may divert energy from another adaptation

3. Historical Constraints/Accidents: leaves non-adaptive vestiges, e.g., whale pelvises

 

ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF SALMON: know key stages in the lifecycle

BENTHIC BIOLOGY and HABITATS

OVERVIEW of Benthic Ecosystems--5 possible food chains in web: Know key examples of each level of each food chaine

i) local producer-->herbivore-->carnivore (1 or more levels):

ii) plankton-->local filter feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

iii) detritus-->local deposit/scavenger feeder--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

iv) pelagic animal-->local pelagos-eating benthic carnivore--->carnivore (1 or more levels)

v) local mutualism, e.g. animal/alga -->carnivore (1 or more levels)

 

OVERVIEW of BENTHIC ADAPTATIONS: Why Movement Factors favor the evolution of sluggish, sessile animals using COST-BENEFIT idea. Thus marine animals are sometimes plantlike! Note how the following adaptations are often analogous to land plant adaptations:

ADAPTATIONS: apply esp. to sluggish/sessile:

1. Light/ENERGY/ Food/Nutrients

a)     Branching structures in filtering animals  [also in algae]=high surface area!

b)    Macroalgae blades with symmetrical structure for photosynthesis; specialized PIGMENTS that enhance light absorption beneath the surface better than chlorophyll! Macroalgae= RHODO-, CHLORO-, PHAEO-phyta

2. BIOTIC interactions --DEFENSES if you canŐt run or fight well

ANATOMICAL:

a)     Armor: coiled shells light but strong; spines. READING on nacre: brick / beams and mortar microanatomy of mollusc shells!  Recall co-evolution with crushing carnivores!--jaws, claws.

b)    Camouflage: Static anatomy such as flounderŐ

--also can have dynamic/physiological camouflage such as octopod chromatophores

---and behavioral camouflage such as decorator crabs

BIOMIMIMETICS: practical usages of nacre-like ceramics

PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOCHEMICAL:

a)     TOXINS/Noxious compounds in animals like plants on land; often ADVERTISE with bright colors: why? (BIOPRODUCTS: READING on practical uses of ŇDRUGS from the DEEPÓ – why examine marine animals for pharmaceuticals when we usually examine plants on land?

b)    Anti-fouling. Anti-competitor compounds—bryozoa, sponges, bacteria that inhibit mussel, barnacle larvae, etc.

 (BIOPRODUCTS READING--use on ship hulls?)

c)     Autotomy , self-evisceration: examples of seastars, brittlestars, cucumbers: how useful

BEHAVIORAL

a)     Clamming up/retreating; etc.

b)    Burrowing as an example; boring in rock

c)     ESCAPE RESPONSES: some Sluggish, sessile  animals sometimes have unexpected, fast, innate, predator-triggered maneuvers; e.g., Jumping clam!

3. BIOTIC interactions --OFFENSES

BEHAVIORAL

            Carnivore Behaviors: hunt&chase (raptorial); ambush; creeping; sedentary/opportunistic

ANATOMICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOCHEMICAL:

a)     Crushing/smashing device - -i) crab claws;  ii) fish jaws; iii) mantis shrimp! Know how each work. BIOMIMETICS why the interest in mantis shrimp claws?

b)    Ambush weapons: harpooning/paralyzing/stunning/poisoning/suckeringÉ.

 i) Cnidaria nematocysts;  ii) cone snail harpoon; iii) snapping shrimp claw jet burst ; iv) octopods -- suckers know how each works!!!  BIOPRODUCTS: why interest in cone-snail toxins?

TEXT: key figures (and associated text, lecture) to understand were given in lecture!

 

READING on LECTURE HANDOUTS--be able to answer these questions:

Lecture #1:      *IN DEPTH ACCOUNTING and DEEP SEA FULL.. what is the Census of Marine Life

                        *OCEAN OBSERVING NETWORK.. and WHERE DEEP SPACE.. what are some of the ocean monitoring systems under development?

Lecture #2:      *NEW CENTER TO FOCUS.. what is this about and why are they building it?

                        *A NEW VIEW.  .: how are new seamounts and deep-sea mountain ranges being discovered from space?

                        *SEA ANIMALS GET TAGGED...how are these animal tags being used for multiple roles?

                        *DEEP-SEA BIOLOGY--What is the extent of our ignorance about the oceans? How did Forbes and Thomson alter the course of marine science?

Lecture #3:      *UNDERWATER PAVEMENT: What was this unique discovery in 2004?

                        *POPULAR MECHANICS article: what are methane hydrates and why so much interest?

                        *THE NEXT LAND RUSH: why is the Arctic seafloor suddenly of international interest?

Lecture #4:      *GLOBAL WARMING IS SPEEDING.. up what and why?

Lecture #5:      * EUROPE COULD CATCH--how does salinity of the Arctic affect European climate?

Lecture #6:      * HOT WATERS MAKE IT HARD--for what and why?

                        *OZONE HOLE and UV are doing what to Antarctic sea life?            

                        *YES IT'S BEEN GETTING: know the basic 'hockey stick' graph

                        *AS OCEANS WARM -- what is the impact on food chains?! 

Lecture #7:      *WHY do JELLIES love warming?

                        *CO2/ACID article -- what is the concern here?

                        *SHOULD OCEANOGRAPHERS PUMP IRON...what are the issues regarding oceanic Fe?

Lecture #8:      *OCEAN DEAD ZONE what causes low oxygen zone

                        *ISLAND LAW -- affects diversity hows

                        *WHAT DETERMINES DIVERSITY ?

Lecture #9:      *ARTICLE ON on dumping excess CO2 into the deep-sea: what are the issues?

                        *SEEPS NEAR SANTA BARBARA -- what is the oil source?

Lecture #10:    *INDUCIBLE DEFENSES: Examples of cost-benefit tradeoffs: intertidal mussels

                        *Three articles: Know some recent findings about marine microbes and viruses!

Lecture #11:     *Dr. Eva Enders: know key stages in salmon lifecycle!

Lecture #12:   *Diagrams for macroalgae

                        *MAKING THE MOST OF IT: what are some biomaterial properties of sponges and mollusks and some practical uses?

Lecture #13:    *DRUGS FROM THE DEEP and PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OOZE: why are researchers seeking drugs in the sea, and with what success?