Introduction || The Walla Walla Basin || The Lower Columbia River || The Pacific Ocean || Conclusion || References || Group Pictures

INTRODUCTION

The salmon have long been a symbol of the Pacific Northwest for both native and local cultures. Local legends tell of a time when the rivers were so full of salmon that it appeared that one could walk across on the backs of the fish. It does not seem possible that the salmon could disappear, but they are. Overharvesting, hydropower, depleted habitat, and competition from hatchery fish have caused massive reductions in salmon populations throughout the Northwest. This proposal to restore salmon populations to the Pacific Northwest with little adverse economic impact is a mixture of current efforts and revolutionary concepts. It concentrates on the spring-run Chinook salmon of the Walla Walla River basin in southeastern Washington and adjacent Oregon, but its principles can be applied to areas and problems throughout the Northwest. Other salmon runs that use the Columbia River would directly benefit from this plan.

Our proposal, which takes into account not only biological concerns but also social, political, and economic factors, relies upon traditional recovery and restoration methods that will be improved or adapted to address the specific needs of the Walla Walla River basin. There are a number of problems in the basin that are detrimental to salmon. These problems include a loss of the habitat necessary for salmon reproduction, low flows and high water temperatures in the summer, and a high concentration of pollutants. Downstream in the Columbia River the salmon must confront four hydroelectric dams: McNary, John Day, the Dalles, and Bonneville. Our plan for addressing the problems caused by the dams is to bypass all dams with an artificial channel that would be used both by juveniles and by adults. Finally, when the salmon reach the Pacific, overfishing drastically reduces their numbers. We propose extending the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone over halfway across the Pacific, with the intent of decreasing fishing pressure to allow the salmon population to rebuild.

This comprehensive plan offers a solution to every problem that a salmon migrating from and to the Walla Walla River basin would encounter. At the same time, areas around the Walla Walla and lower Columbia Rivers would benefit economically. This plan is feasible and would be effective in returning the endangered salmon to a region where they were once prolific.

THE WALLA WALLA BASIN

The Walla Walla River drains the southeast corner of Washington and adjacent Oregon. It empties into the Columbia River just below the mouth of the Snake River. Historic salmon runs, specifically spring- and fall-run Chinook, and most likely Chum and Coho, once inhabited the Walla Walla River basin (USACE, 1997, 2-12). As Chris Pinney (1999, personal communication), fishery biology for the Army Corps of Engineers, noted, summer steelhead and other resident salmonids were also present. Local tribes depended on these runs, which were reportedly quite significant (Corliss, 1998c, 25). Unfortunately, no historic record exists of the number of adult salmon returning to the Walla Walla River; similar watersheds in close proximity, such as the Tucannon River, had runs of 30,000 or more spring Chinook (Judd Volkman, unpublished report, 1997). In 1806, Lewis and Clark reported seeing copious salmon at the mouth of the Walla Walla River (Kemp, 1998a, 1). Although the lower portion of the Walla Walla River was not historically used for spawning due to the low level of water and lack of appropriately sized gravel in their spawning grounds, the rest of the basin was extremely prolific (USACE, 1997, 2-12).

The Walla Walla region would not have been settled if not for the river and the vast benefits that it offered first to the Cayuse and Walla Walla Indians and later to the white missionaries. The missionaries' prosperity was attributed to irrigated agriculture and water-powered sawmills (Corliss, 1998b, 28). As the region began to develop, agriculture increased, requiring the large quantities of water that the Walla Walla River and its tributaries provided. Several diversion dams were constructed, the most significant being Nine-Mile Falls Dam, constructed in the 1920s near Reese, Washington; this barrier effectively ended the salmon runs in the Walla Walla River (Corliss, 1998b, 28). Although a steelhead run still exists today, salmon are extinct from the basin.

In the spring of 1998, the national organization American Rivers listed the Walla Walla River as one of North America's most endangered rivers (Corliss and Farquhar, 1998, 1). There are numerous reasons for this listing, one of the most significant being the extremely low in-stream flow of the river from June to October. Historically, the Walla Walla River has had low flow levels, but since the inception of irrigation of farmlands for such crops as Walla Walla sweet onions, alfalfa, and various fruits (Corliss and Farquhar, 1998, 1), flow levels have drastically reduced. Irrigation practices also create obstacles such as dams and diversions that prevent fish from moving freely in the river. A third problem associated with the Walla Walla River is the high level of pollution it carries. This pollution includes non-point source contaminants such as urban stormwater runoff (USACE, 1997, 3-2) as well as agricultural wastes, including soil particles that carry fertilizers and other chemical byproducts. Other alterations in the natural flow of the river have resulted from various flood control efforts, including the construction of levees, dikes and channels. Although these structures were designed to protect many areas along the river from flooding, they have destroyed much of the fish and wildlife habitat of the river. When floods do occur, the channelized state of the river makes these events much more destructive (Corliss and Farquhar, 1998, 1). It should also be noted that the region's characteristically hot summers and irrigation practices cause the Walla Walla River to go dry at the Washington-Oregon border during the summer (Corliss and Farquhar, 1998, 1). All of these problems, in addition to the continued destruction of riparian habitat, work together to raise the river's temperature and ultimately create a habitat in which salmon cannot survive.

Although the current endangered status of the Walla Walla River may paint a bleak future, there is hope for the return of native salmon runs. This status can be changed through such means as adjustment of agricultural processes, improved riparian habitat, and fish friendly flood control. By dividing the river into separate sections, these solutions will be discussed in more detail as they apply to specific reaches of the river.

The first two sections of the Walla Walla River to be discussed are the North and South Forks, which include the portions of the river upstream of Milton-Freewater, Oregon. Bill Neve, Watermaster for the Washington State Department of Ecology, notes that the South Fork is generally quite pristine, with habitat acceptable to salmon populations; most, if not all, of the irrigation ditches on this stretch of the river are screened (1999, personal communication). In addition to the previously discussed problems, the North Fork of the river is inhospitable to salmon for another reason: as of 1997, many of the irrigation diversions located within this area were not screened or were screened inadequately, causing juvenile salmon to become stranded in fields on their way down the river (USACE, 1997, 3-6). One of the first steps in improving salmon habitat on the North Fork of the Walla Walla River would be the installation of effective screens at the intakes of all irrigation diversions. The responsibility and costs of installing these screens may be best incurred by a government agency, such as the Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), with a percentage paid by the landowners, in order to ensure that the screens are effective and that landowners are not forced to carry all of the financial burden.

A major tributary of the Walla Walla River is Mill Creek, which flows through and is the municipal water source for the City of Walla Walla. Mill Creek presents a major problem for salmon migration: through most of the City of Walla Walla, Mill Creek flows through an artificial river channel constructed by the Corps for flood control. Changing this structure through the middle of the city would be costly and potentially dangerous because of the increased risk of flood damage. The section through the city in a concrete channel was constructed with periodic barriers to facilitate upstream salmonid migration. Below the city, the riparian habitat of the river is poor. Traditional riparian species, specifically cottonwood, white alder, and willow, could be replanted (USACE, 1997, 2-15). Healthy riparian habitat would decrease water temperatures and provide buffers to keep contaminants out of the river.

The other major tributary to the Walla Walla River is the Touchet River. The most significant problem with the Touchet River is the high concentration of sediment resulting from runoff caused by poor land management practices (USACE, 1997, 3-1). This problem could be mitigated by planting riparian vegetation, outlawing farm practices which leave the soil exposed for extended periods of time, and encouraging soil conservation methods such as reduced tillage or no-till. It can also be mitigated by not allowing crops to be planted within a certain distance of the stream bank, suggested by this proposal to be 30 meters. In addition, the current levee system constructed by the Corps for flood control does not allow much in the way of in-stream habitat. Constructing setback levees would increase in-stream habitat while still providing flood control. Parts of the Touchet River are also dry during the summer months, which means that there is no salmon habitat during this warmer period. The lack of water is mostly due to an overallocation of water for agriculture. One solution to this problem would be to lease and/or purchase water rights from farmers or to pass laws in order to reduce the amount of water taken from the river during the dry months.

It is necessary to address those problems that are common for all sections of the Walla Walla River. These problems include low in-stream flows, high water temperatures, destruction of habitat, high levels of sediment and pollution, and clear-cutting of forests. One problem that is common to all portions of the river is low in-stream flows resulting from irrigation withdrawals. This latter problem will be addressed below in "Walla Walla River Basin and Water Rights."

A problem present in most areas of the Walla Walla River is the destruction of riparian habitat. The removal of riverside vegetation has resulted from intense agricultural practices and urban expansion in the basin. The loss of this vegetation increases bank erosion, which leads to increased sediment in the river. Loss of vegetation also decreases the amount of shade over the river, causing water temperatures to rise. The Army Corps of Engineers has indicated that high water temperatures are a significant problem for anadromous fish in the Walla Walla River basin (USACE, 1997, 3-9). These problems can be solved by adopting laws and practices that require riparian habitat to be left in a buffer of about 30 meters along the banks of the river. In those sections where the trees and plants have already been removed, it should be required that re-vegetation efforts be made. Such efforts have already begun on some of the banks of the river through the planting of cottonwoods and other indigenous vegetation. Costs for such projects can be reduced by using the labor of volunteers and/or convicts as well as through user fees on the river (e.g., fishing and hunting licenses, hiking and camping permits).

A third problem that makes most sections of the Walla Walla River inhospitable to salmon is the high level of pollution in the river (USACE, 1997, 2-12, 3-2, 3-4, 3-6). The pollution is caused by runoff of agricultural byproducts and stormwater. Residents use storm drains to dump oil, paint, and other toxins, rather than disposing of them through environmentally friendly means. Nitrogenous effluent in the form of fertilizer from local farms often increases eutrophication, and thus depletes oxygen from the river. An increase in vegetation along the river would help to absorb runoff from surrounding hillsides and urban areas, reducing the levels of pollution in the Walla Walla River. In addition to improving the riparian habitat, a second solution that may help to reduce pollution from runoff is an increase in public awareness regarding the dumping of wastes in storm drains. Increasing public awareness and making alternative disposal more convenient could help to reduce the level of contamination that ends up in the Walla Walla River. Methods of reducing chemical loads should also be implemented. Tax incentives and government subsidies should be provided for farmers that practice sustainable agriculture. Non-profit organizations like The Food Alliance and Pacific Rivers Council's Salmon Safe Program provide incentives for these types of management practices; such programs should be encouraged. Desirable agricultural techniques include those that reduce the use of residual herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides.

One of the biggest problems in the upper reaches of the Columbia and Walla Walla Rivers is streamside erosion and pollution by cattle. Cattle have a significant effect upon the degradation of riparian habitat; they trample stream banks and pollute the water with their excrement. A relatively easy way to reduce this damage is to fence off the Walla Walla River from cattle. Mike Pelissier (1999, personal communication) of the Walla Walla County Conservation District noted that, with the assistance of federal and state funds, his organization is currently undergoing such efforts along a 30-mile stretch of the Walla Walla River. Water from the Walla Walla and the Columbia Rivers can still be allocated to cattle ranchers through piping systems and non-stream-side access routes. Places that have implemented streamside fencing have seen significant decreases in river sediment loads. Financing for this fencing, as has been done in the past, could come from the Native American tribes in the Walla Walla area, as well as from federal and state funds through the Endangered Species Act. The tribes, through their Salmon Corps program funded by the Bonneville Power Administration, could provide most of the labor (Pinney, 1999, p.c.). Buffer areas that exclude cattle should be established at least 30 meters from the banks of the river.

The clear-cutting, such as occurs above the City of Walla Walla in Tiger Canyon, of private and public forests found in the Walla Walla rivershed must be halted. This practice drastically increases the erosion of sediments and contributes to high sediment loads in streams. As noted above, this creates unhealthy salmon habitat.

Walla Walla River Basin and Water Rights

According to Washington State Department of Ecology Environmental Specialist-Watermaster Bill Neve (1998, personal communication), "the primary sources of water in the Walla Walla River basin are the deep basalt groundwater aquifer, the upper gravel unconsolidated aquifer, and surface waters." Walla Walla River basin streams flow almost year round. However, as Neve explains, water usage from this river has been so overallocated that, during the summer months, Mill Creek (a tributary of the Walla Walla River) and parts of the Walla Walla River itself are essentially dry. Most of Mill Creek is redirected into Garrison and Yellowhawk Creeks near Bennington Lake, a reservoir created by the Army Corps of Engineers. "Mill Creek essentially becomes a creek again only after it picks up water west of the City of Walla Walla" (Neve, 1998, p.c.). In addition, during most of the summer the Walla Walla River is fully averted within Oregon.

Water rights to the Walla Walla River and its tributaries determine allotments for farmers and residents in both Washington and Oregon. However, the system by which they are distributed and managed is complicated and sometimes inefficient. Neve (1998, p.c.) explains that water rights "do not necessarily reflect what is actually being diverted...as very few diversions are actually metered, any estimate of water used in the basin is just that, an estimate." Most of the water allocated through these rights goes to promote irrigated farming in the Walla Walla area; however, 28 cfs (cubic feet per second) are taken from Mill Creek for the City of Walla Walla. To further complicate the issue, water taken for this purpose is actually an Oregon allotment and is not included in the Washington figures.

Although farming has been the backbone of this community since the mid-1800s, farming practices include the utilization of large amounts of water in an area where dry-land farming could be practiced; for example, many farmers irrigate wheat. There are some farmers who irrigate their crops simply because, without irrigation, they would be unable to make a living. However, measures to increase water efficiency in these areas (e.g., with drip irrigation) are essential to reduce water loss. Discovering who has water rights, how much they use, and determining what farming practices could be implemented to improve in-stream flows are several possible ways of reducing waste in this system of water management.

Buying water rights from irrigating farmers could be an aide in returning water to the Walla Walla River. When a farmer applies for a water right, he or she must justify the reason for needing the water right to the Washington State Department of Ecology. This organization then determines if the request is feasible (i.e., if there is enough water to allocate more of it to a particular farmer), beneficial, impairs existing water rights, and if the right will be in the public's best interest. These broad categories leave room for groups to restructure the way that water is used in the Walla Walla River. Bill Neve (1998, p.c.) explains that the "outright purchase [of water rights] is something that is very new - an emerging market that is not at all well established.... There is a new group in Washington [State] called the Washington Water Trust that will be looking to buy/lease/trade water rights to improve flow during peak spawning periods." Some farmers, like Larry and Julie Williams of Athena, Oregon, are finding that renting out their water rights is less of a risk than using them to farm. With a guaranteed income from the rental of these rights, "it's not a risk for us, like farming is" (Corliss, 1998a, 25). Neve believes that many irrigating farmers would be unable to farm without their water rights; however, they may be willing to sell their water rights, and even their farms, if the price is right.

One of the main problems with trying to convert water rights (typically used for irrigation in the Columbia and Walla Walla River basins) to water left in the river (in this case, for salmon) is the issue of downstream consumers versus upstream conservers. Any water left in the river upstream is generally consumed by those who use this water downstream. Thus, if a certain portion of water was set aside for salmon in Oregon (upstream), that water could still be re-allocated in Washington (downstream). Farmers in Oregon are reluctant to give up their water rights simply to see their neighbors in Washington prosper from it. Neve (1998, p.c.) argues that if the Walla Walla River had "some sort of minimum flow to work with...it would be much easier to save water." Despite issues of re-allocation, the primary source of water available to be returned to in-stream uses is still from the reclamation of irrigated farmlands. Concerns do exist, though, about the effect that this movement would have on the tax base in the area. Perhaps a more economical way of re-allocating water from farmers to the river itself is to, as Neve (1998, p.c.) suggests, "create an opportunity for incentives to be offered to make irrigation systems more efficient. These incentives could include tax breaks, cost share for capital improvements, or the possibility of regulatory actions." Applied throughout the region, these alternatives could also help to alleviate the problem of re-allocation of supposedly conserved upstream water.

Similar to the process by which air pollution credits are traded and distributed, water rights could also be allocated according to a market system. Salmon have both existence and economic value. While their economic value as a food source is regulated by pricing systems, their existence value has yet to be addressed. If their role as an indicator species in the environment and a cultural symbol of the Pacific Northwest can be quantified, and if the water they use is given a higher market value because of it, farmers may have an incentive to make their industry more efficient.

 Finally, environmental groups as well as government agencies should participate in the leasing or purchase of water rights from water users in the Walla Walla River basin. Cooperation between Oregon and Washington is essential for this method to succeed. Creating a minimum flow that is to be preserved by both states (as suggested by Bill Neve) for the Walla Walla River could be of major assistance to water conservation problems.

THE LOWER COLUMBIA RIVER

Legend: MCN = McNary Dam; JDA = John Day Dam; TDA = The Dalles Dam; BON = Bonneville Dam

The presence of dams produces obstacles for salmon in the lower Columbia River, yet these dams provide essential services to the communities of the Pacific Northwest. The dams provide hydropower, cheap transportation, irrigation, flood control, and recreation and tourism opportunities for 36 ports of various sizes in Idaho, Washington and Oregon (Chamberlain, 1998, 25-6).

Hydropower provides the Northwest with an inexpensive, clean source of electricity. Increasing hydropower provided the region with the opportunity to develop. It is estimated that approximately 75 percent of the Bonneville Power Administration's (BPA) power is generated from the Snake and Columbia Rivers dams, though only 50 percent of that amount supplies the Pacific Northwest with power (Tom Osborn, 1999, personal communication). Although steps are currently being taken to provide clean energy for the area, such as the proposal for a natural gas power plant near Starbuck, Washington (Neve, 1999, p.c.), alternative clean sources of electricity are not yet solely feasible for the amount of power demanded by public and private entities in the Pacific Northwest. As soon as dams and locks were erected and barge systems developed, barges provided transportation of crops to major exporting ports in the western areas of the states, such as Seattle and Portland. One farmer noted that barge transportation was tenfold cheaper than alternative methods (although this method has been heavily subsidized by Congress and government agencies) (Tom Wagoner, 1998, personal communication). Barging also reduces the number of trucks on the road, which contributes to a reduction in air pollution.

Irrigators along the lower Columbia River have come to depend on a steady supply of water, even through the dry season. "Federally supported irrigation and reclamation projects encouraged farming in the most arid sections of the Columbia basin....' Some of the worst land in the region has been converted into some of the best'" (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 64). Irrigation has proven to be beneficial to many different employment markets, including agriculture, food processing, equipment sales, and crop dusting.

The dams provide some flood control. Before the erection of most of the dams, flooding was a devastating and even deadly hazard. The flood of 1948 in Vanport, Oregon, cost over $102 million dollars in damage and claimed 38 lives (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 61). There have been floods following the construction of the dams, but the recent floods were less damaging and less severe.

The lower Columbia River offers Northwesterners numerous recreational opportunities. Hood River is a mecca for windsurfers, sailors, and water skiers. The "85-mile canyon on the lower river known as the Gorge...has attracted visitors for more than a century" (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 66). The smooth, wide reservoirs provided by the dams make the river a prime spot for recreation. Tourists have also traditionally flocked to the river for renowned salmon fishing opportunities. Since the depletion of salmon runs, sport fishers have adapted to fishing for other species, such as bass. Many types of visitors provide economic opportunities for towns along the river.

Problems for Salmon in the Lower Columbia River

Dams have significantly altered the normal flow of the lower Columbia River; instead of a cool, relatively fast moving river that fluctuates in depth, width, and velocity, the river has been shaped into a string of relatively warm, wide, slow moving reservoirs. The dams prevent balancing of the sediment budget between upstream and downstream (Pinney, 1999, p.c.) and flood wetlands. Because of their effect on the environment, dams have significantly contributed to the decline of salmon in the Pacific Northwest. For growth and development, salmon require very specific environmental conditions and are often referred to as indicators of the health of their habitat. They require cold, fast moving oxygenated water, adequate stream flow, gravel streambeds for spawning, and riparian vegetation that provides shade and cover. The extremely high turbidity caused by dam spillways has been shown to block gills and to reduce oxygen exchange. Sediment covers eggs and essential gravel spawning grounds as it settles out of the water. Streambeds with low velocities provide good breeding grounds for predatory fish and other species that are not commercially beneficial in the Pacific Northwest; predatory species include squawfish, walleye, and smallmouth bass (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 90-1). Reservoir mortality is estimated at five to 33 percent (this figure includes predation and competition with other exotic species), depending on the year and dam operations; prior to the erection of the dams predation levels were significantly lower (Pinney, 1999, p.c.; USACE, 1996a, 2-4). Reasonably turbid water, as seen in naturally flowing rivers, provides salmon with cover from predatory birds and fish; several species appear to prefer turbid over clear water. The Columbia River, with dams, is unable to provide such a safe level of turbid water; current turbidity levels are too low in reservoirs, and too high below dam spillways.

Dams and human transport of salmon greatly affect timing of migration. Increased migration time is correlated with predation upon salmon, and decreased migration time does not allow juveniles enough time to adjust to saline water. Because of the reduced mean velocity and inhibited passage caused by dams, the trips down the lower Columbia River increased from a few days to weeks. Barged "migrants arrive earlier than would be normal because [barging] shortens natural migration..." (USACE, 1996a, 2-4). Being anadromous, salmon have a very specific requirement for length of migration in order to adjust to changing salinity levels between the river and the ocean. Even a slight lengthening or shortening in the period of their migration has caused a decline in the health of the fish. "The hatchery, harvest, and barging systems, in addition to the hydropower system, have inadvertently modified, restricted, and shifted the natural timing of migration" (USACE, 1996a, 2-5).

Effluents and pollutants pose a problem for salmon in the main stem of the Columbia River. Chemical pollutants in the river include organochlorides and other agricultural insecticides, fungicides, nutrient fertilizers such as nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as chlorine from paper mills like the one at Wallula, Washington. Urban wastewater runoff, impervious surface water residue, and storm-water runoff from the ports located on the Columbia River also contribute to its pollution. Nutrient load on the river especially affects salmon; in the slow moving reservoirs behind dams, nutrient overload causes algal blooms, eutrophication and subsequent de-oxygenation of the water, which degrades salmon habitat. Development directly adjacent to the Columbia River is not the only source of pollution, though; all of the tributaries of the river contribute significant amounts of pollution.

Gas bubble disease poses a significant threat to Columbia River salmon runs. Water flowing over the spillways of the dams collects excess amounts of atmospheric gas. When the water flows into the slow moving pools created by the dams, instead of being purged from the water by flowing through shallower rapids (as would normally happen in an undammed river), atmospheric gas remains in the river. Salmon and other fish absorb the gas, and bubbles and ruptures appear in their skin, eyes, and mouths. This problem was first pinpointed in the 1960s and many measures have been taken by the Army Corps of Engineers to attempt to alleviate it. As long as spillways remain and salmon must migrate by way of the waters that run through them, though, gas bubble disease remains a major impediment to salmon survival (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 88).

Fishing by Native tribes, sport, and commercial fishers has historically had an effect on salmon populations. As early as the first part of the twentieth century there was abundant evidence that commercial salmon fishing was harmful to native salmon populations (Mighetto and Ebel, 1994, 151). Until salmon populations are restored to the Columbia River and Walla Walla River basins at a healthy level, sport and commercial fishing must be halted or greatly reduced.

Mitigating Salmon Mortality on the Lower Columbia River

The series of dams on the lower Columbia River (McNary, John Day, The Dalles and Bonneville Dams) all significantly contribute to salmon mortality. To improve chances for survival of salmon, the problems they face on this waterway must either be eliminated or drastically mitigated. One way to eliminate these problems would be to remove one of the earth-rock wings of each of the dams, creating a natural river. This option is currently being discussed for the lower Snake River. However, the dams on the lower Columbia River support more barged commerce and produce much more power than the dams on the Snake River. At this point in time, the problems that dams create on the lower Columbia River do not outweigh the benefits that they provide. A solution must be found, therefore, which addresses all of the problems that the dams create for salmon and still retains the benefits that the dams provide.

In order to accomplish this effectively, one must acknowledge that there is no way that salmon can continue to co-exist with the dams. The efforts to support co-existence have been extensive, e.g., screens, juvenile collection systems, barging, and fish ladders. These efforts have not solved our current predicament. Salmon must have a natural-like, free flowing waterway and the large reservoirs must be maintained for barging, hydropower, flood control, water storage, and recreation.

The Salmon Channel

Two separate systems must be created: one for salmon, and one for hydropower and commerce. We propose the creation of a salmon channel that would bypass all the dams on the lower Columbia River. Diverting a small portion of the flow of the Columbia River would be sufficient for this channel. The current status of hydropower, transportation, irrigation, and recreation on the river would be maintained, the only difference being a slight reduction in discharge.

The salmon, however, would benefit tremendously. Before delving into this matter in detail, it is helpful to get a sense of the overall picture. Imagine a channel on the northern bank of the river-a small river running parallel to, but separate from, the Columbia River. This channel would run from just upstream of McNary Dam to downstream of Bonneville, a distance of approximately 165 miles.

The northern bank of the Columbia River carries a road, which must remain relatively flat, and a railroad, which can accommodate only a one percent grade. The channel would parallel the river, road, and railroad, and would be carved out of bedrock and/or sediments just north of the Columbia River in most places; in other areas, a concrete trough would be constructed. The channel would be constructed on the Washington side of the river because there is less development, resulting in more options for the exact route of the channel; highway 84 runs parallel to the river on the Oregon side.

This system would be beneficial not only for juveniles, but for adults as well. Adjacent to McNary Dam on the Washington side of the river, a lake would be constructed to collect all the salmon smolts migrating down the Columbia River. Fish currently collected from the Snake River juvenile salmon collection facilities would be barged or trucked to this pond. Improved screening devices on McNary Dam would channel all of the remaining salmon into the lake. From the lake, the smolts would enter the channel and would not encounter another dam on their downstream trip, ending up below Bonneville Dam and eventually the entering the Pacific Ocean via in-river passage.

Our calculations indicate that, for a stream with a velocity of 2mi/hr, an average depth of five feet, and an average width of 100 feet, only 1000-2000 cfs would have to be diverted from the Columbia. Percolation and evaporation necessitate further water inputs along the stretch of the channel. However, this amount is less than one percent of the average flow of the mighty Columbia River and will not change reservoir levels at all. Such a flow would be sufficient to flush the smolts into the ocean in approximately one week (taking into account barge time from the Snake River to the McNary Dam collection facility). According to a report made by the Corps of Engineers in April of 1994, a flume that could accommodate 2 million juvenile salmon per day would only require 200 cfs design discharge (USACE, 1994, 5-25). Our proposed channel has the potential to accommodate a greater number of salmon, including those migrating upstream.

Juvenile salmon would use the channel, as it would be their main option for downstream migration. This route would greatly increase their chances of survival, as it would be free of the problems caused by dams. The free flowing nature of the water would create cooler temperatures, reduce sediment load, and reduce predation on the smolts in this portion of the river. Concentration of dissolved oxygen would also be higher than that in the mainstem lower Columbia River because the water would have higher velocity, cooler temperatures, and increased mixing. The problem of gas bubble disease would be eliminated.

The key to success of this plan is to make the channel as natural as possible. "Salmon like a widely varied habitat," said Chris Pinney (1999, p.c.), fishery biologist with the Army Corps of Engineers. In starting from scratch and concentrating on salmon, the ideal habitat could be created in the channel. Rocks and logs would be used to create pools, eddies, swiftly flowing areas, cover for predators, and to increase dissolved oxygen. The channel would have varying width and depth to provide for varied velocity, simulating a more natural river where adult salmon would have places to rest during upstream migration.

Salmon prefer areas of mixed streambed texture (Pinney, 1999, p.c.); therefore, the bottom of the channel would be lined with gravel, sand, and/or mud in various places. To complete the ecosystem, in-stream and riparian vegetation would be added. This would provide oxygen, cover, food, and varied temperature. Differences in stream temperature provide physiological reservoirs for salmon in their migration. If the water is too warm in certain areas, the salmon will wait in cooler, deeper areas for the water to become cooler. Adequate streamside vegetation and debris will create this gradient.

An essential and multi-purpose use of the channel is to provide critical riparian habitat for salmon as well as for other species, including the bald eagle. As more salmon begin using the channel and higher numbers of salmon are observed, natural predators of these fish will begin to flourish near the stream. Initially, some sort of predation control would be required to protect migrating salmon. As the salmon populations stabilize, nature will be left more to itself. Riparian areas are often seen as critical corridor habitat as well as resting areas for migratory wildlife. Other animals would be able to take full advantage of this new habitat. The channel would also be a potential area for the reintroduction of native plant species.

The channel would empty back into the Columbia River just below Bonneville Dam. The channel spillway into the Columbia River would have to have significant flow to attract upstream-migrating adult salmon. In order to prevent predation on juvenile salmon at the mouth of the channel, nets would be positioned over the area where they would reenter the Columbia River. These nets would be designed using the model of already existing nets used for similar purposes at the bases of spillways of dams on the Columbia. Fish ladders on the four lower Columbia River dams would be left in place, but improved to make it easier for adults to ascend the dams to get to tributaries such as the John Day, Deschutes, Klickitat, and White Salmon Rivers. The existing fish ladders need modifications that would create rest areas for adult salmon, and the river must be protected from further degradation. Therefore, either way the adults traveled, survival rates would be high.

There are a few tributaries that converge with the Columbia River downstream of the top of the channel. Initially, the juvenile salmon in these tributaries would not be able to take advantage of the channel for downstream migration. For upstream migration, it would be important that the adults returning to these tributaries did not enter the channel. However, this would probably not be an issue because, as Pinney (1999, p.c.) has pointed out, the salmon returning to these tributaries would smell their native stream water in the fish ladders, not in the salmon channel. To ensure that tributary fish would elect to use the fish ladder and not the channel, it may be necessary to design the channel and each fish ladder with a junction box habitat that influxes tributary flows and keeps them running parallel a distance before mixing so that adults can set their cues (Pinney, 1999, p.c.). These salmon would therefore be divided into two groups: those spawning upriver of McNary Dam, and those spawning downriver of this dam.

Opportunities for Recreation in the Channel

The channel could be designed to accommodate various recreational activities. This would increase public support for the plan as well as provide economic opportunities for nearby small towns. By maintaining the lower Columbia River in its current state, present forms of recreation, such as wind surfing, power boating, and water-skiing, would not be affected. Local areas would continue to enjoy economic benefits from these activities as well as increased economic benefits from the recreational opportunities that the channel could provide.

The channel could be designed not only for pristine salmon habitat, but also as a whitewater run. Different portions could be planned for boaters of varying levels of expertise. Tournaments could be held. With possibilities for design completely open, it would not be unreasonable to design one of the best whitewater courses in the world-one that would draw international attention. Whitewater rafting, kayaking, and canoeing enthusiasts would flock to the Columbia River. The economic benefits in local areas would be vast. In addition to whitewater activities, the channel could accommodate recreational fishing opportunities as well as various sightseeing and eco-tourism opportunities. Spectators would visit to revel in the glory of such a magnificent solution to the salmon crisis.

It is important to clarify, however, that the primary purpose of the channel would be to rebuild salmon stocks. During the first few years following the completion of the channel, recreational activities would be limited or completely restricted so that efforts could be concentrated on the restoration of salmon. Once significant salmon runs were established, recreational benefits of the channel could be enjoyed. The organization overseeing the channel would maintain the authority to shut down or reduce recreational use of the channel if deemed necessary for protection of the salmon runs.

Opportunities for Research & Education

The channel would be a valuable resource for the study of artificial riparian habitat and behavior of salmon. Not only could federal agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service perform research in and around the channel, but school children and citizens from Washington and Oregon could as well. Due to the length of the channel, and its location near the highway, the potential for learning and research centers for the public is bountiful. The principle of multiple use would be well served by a channel that functions as salmon-saver, recreation-giver, and teacher.

Hatcheries

Although the hatchery program was implemented in order to increase salmon populations in the Columbia River, some argue that the program has actually had a net negative effect on native salmon populations. Two main purposes of the hatchery program on the Columbia River are to maintain long-term genetic fitness of the fish and to increase their populations for future harvest. The concept of captive breeding to increase fitness and survival rate of endangered species is not a new one; many breeding programs have increased populations of nearly extinct species throughout the United States. For example, the California Condor was successfully bred in captivity and eventually released into the wild. However, salmon breeding programs have had little success in re-establishing fish populations and have probably reduced populations of native salmon in the region.

Fish in general are easy to breed and care for in their infancy. Hatcheries in the Columbia River basin have "annually reared between 200 and 300 million juvenile salmonids for release," and approximately 75 percent of the Columbia River stock of salmon are from hatcheries (USACE, 1996a, 2-9). Hatchery fish are typically raised for one year before they are released into the river to begin their migration. During this yearlong incubation, the fish are "fed daily to satiation to maximize smolt size before release" (USACE, 1996b, 3-23). The holding ponds for these fish are typically covered with bird nets and are free of any predators. The fish are fed from above and remain near the surface of the water most of the time. This system of management of young fish reduces predator-avoiding behavior in the wild. Because they are fed to their satiation point every day, young hatchery fish also tend to be larger and, as a result of their size and the sheer numbers released, are more competitive in the wild than young native fish. In addition, the dramatic increase in the number of smolts in the river has allowed the predator base to increase significantly. Hatchery fish, in fact, have been shown to be genetically inferior to native populations (USACE, 1995, 1-11).

A more natural approach to hatchery management would decrease the negative impact of releasing non-native salmon into the river. Releasing young fish into acclimation ponds as soon as possible after hatching would more closely simulate natural conditions. In addition, releasing the fish into acclimation ponds as fry would promote predator-avoiding behaviors in these young fish. The ultimate goal of this new hatchery program would be to mimic the intrinsic breeding habitats of historical salmon runs and eventually have the hatchery stock become a naturally migrating population, i.e., eliminate the use of hatcheries all together.

Due to the disappearance of the spring-run Chinook salmon from the Walla Walla rivershed, it will be necessary to use hatchery fish for restocking. The genetic source of the Walla Walla River salmon would most likely be the Carson Hatchery, located near Bonneville Dam on the Washington side of the Columbia River (USACE, 1997, 4-12). These fish are most similar, in terms of their timing of entry, spawning habits, and time of smolt migration, to those that used to inhabit the Walla Walla River basin.

THE PACIFIC OCEAN

Once the salmon reach the Pacific Ocean, they are subject to catch by the recreational and commercial fishing industries of many different countries. The current Exclusive Economic Zone (E.E.Z.) of the United States extends 200 miles offshore from the coast; outside of this zone, any country is allowed to catch fish. While the U.S. can regulate fishing practices of domestic fleets, it has much less control over foreign fleets.

To address this problem, the E.E.Z. should be extended to one half of the distance to the next country. Thus, the U.S. would claim over half of the northern Pacific Ocean. We expect that, eventually, all countries would implement such a plan, the end result being that every part of every ocean would be claimed; international waters would no longer exist. Extending the E.E.Z. is probably an inevitable action.

This plan would have a number of benefits for monitoring salmon runs as well as simplifying the political processes involved. First of all, salmon that migrate out of U.S. or Canadian waters are targeted mainly by Russian, Japanese, Taiwanese, and Korean vessels. Migratory species may be significantly depleted by the time they re-enter the U.S. E.E.Z., after being subjected to fishing pressure within other countries' E.E.Z.s as well as international waters (USDoS, 1994). If the U.S. controlled over half of the northern Pacific Ocean, it could better regulate stocks. "The exclusive sovereign right was granted to establish a more effective conservation regime. The coastal state is under a duty to conserve those stocks as it has been granted an exclusive exploitation right in return for effective conservation" (USDoS, 1994).

By dividing the oceans, we could reduce the number of players involved in negotiations over fishing practices. The main countries involved would be Russia, the United States, Canada, and Japan. These countries would play the primary role in deciding who gets to fish for the salmon. If fewer countries were involved, decisions and treaty making would be easier and more effective. It would also improve the chances that all countries would have their demands met and needs satisfied. Reducing the fishing pressure from outside nations has the potential to reduce the incidence of law breaking if fishers feel that they do not have to break laws in order to compete with foreign vessels. The alarming drop in fish stocks, coupled with the ease with which fishers can access the waters of other nations, has led to the promulgation of many regional and international treaties.

Patrolling our current E.E.Z. is difficult, and adding a large new area could drain the already scarce resources of the Coast Guard. Satellite imagery, however, could be used to monitor the newly acquired waters. Violators would be dealt with severely. Treaties could be negotiated to trade access to U.S. and foreign waters.

In addition to the change in the E.E.Z., other measures would be taken to further conserve and better manage Pacific Ocean salmon stocks. Within our extended E.E.Z., certain areas would be designated as sanctuaries and would be completely off-limits to any fishing pressure, recreational or commercial. Pinney (1999, p.c.) notes that "the continental shelf from [the] Pacific Northwest (down to Point Blanco in California) through British Columbia...and Alaska out to the end of the Aleutian Island chain is critical for Pacific salmon survival." Outside of these no-fishing areas, strict management policies would be adopted and adhered to in order to recover an economically viable stock level. Current management schemes of our nation's fisheries have resulted in nothing but devastation of one fishery after another. Although the National Marine Fisheries Service is supposed to set catch quotas at the level of maximum sustainable yield, this, so far, has proved extremely problematic and drastically ineffective. New management policies must be set to allow fishers to catch no more than 60 percent of estimated maximum sustainable yield. This margin would allow for natural variations in the fishery and would ensure that the salmon populations continue to grow. Although setting low catch levels would hurt the commercial fishing industry, this would only be temporary. It is better to have the fishing industry suffer economically for a few years and then have thriving salmon populations to target than to maintain current practices and to vainly attempt to catch an increasingly rare species. The drastic cutting of catch quotas is a necessity if Northwest salmon populations will ever recover.

Other methods to regulate the fishing industry would be necessary as well. One popular method of taking salmon is purse seining; a seine net can encompass an entire school of salmon and pluck it from the sea. More selective methods of fishing would benefit salmon populations. Instead of taking some entire schools and leaving other schools untouched, more selective fishing methods would spread the take over the entire salmon population and leave the majority of all schools intact. To make the fishing methods more selective, fishers would only be allowed to use hook and line to catch salmon; no nets of any sort would be allowed. In addition, time-of-year restrictions could be implemented to allow the greatest number of adults to return to spawn. Native Americans are currently allowed to catch 50 percent of the allowable salmon harvest in the Columbia River; the tribes may be willing to sign a temporary treaty limiting their catch for five to ten years in the interest of rebuilding the stocks. While salmon stocks are recovering, limited recreational fishing opportunities such as catch-and-release fishing could provide income to coastal towns that traditionally have relied upon commercial fishing.

CONCLUSION

The "Four-Hs" of salmon mortality that are commonly referred to (hydropower, harvest, habitat, and hatcheries) are all significant contributors to the destruction of salmon runs in the Pacific Northwest. Many speculate that one or the other is a more significant contributor, but all factors are important. All are serious problems that need serious answers.

The first problem that needs to be addressed is the poor state of salmon habitat in the Walla Walla River basin. In order to do this, we propose an increase in and improvement of buffer zones along the river. This would help to reduce erosion, provide shade, and decreas1e water temperatures. The purchase or reallocation of water rights is necessary to increase in-stream flow, especially during the summer months. Finally, in order to improve salmon habitat, logging and agricultural land-use practices should be re-evaluated. Clear-cutting in riparian zones needs to be eliminated in order to alleviate sediment related problems. Fencing off streams from cattle can reduce stream bank erosion. We should also implement agricultural practices that reduce soil and chemical runoff.

 The major threat to salmon populations along the Columbia River is the presence of dams. The benefits provided by the dams are significant, and it is therefore not practical or feasible to advocate their removal. We believe salmon runs can be restored by constructing a salmon channel, parallel to the Columbia River, which allows for unobstructed salmon passage from a collection pool above McNary Dam to below Bonneville Dam. This channel would not only eliminate the high mortality rates of salmon caused by dams, but it would also provide economic benefits to nearby cities and towns. Although we have discussed the secondary uses of the salmon channel, we would like to emphasize that the preservation of salmon and their habitat is the most crucial function of this waterway. Any other benefits derived from its creation should not overwhelm its biological purposes.

Another problem that has led to the reduction of salmon populations is the use of hatcheries. Hatchery fish would be used to implement our plan, but hatcheries would be phased out as salmon runs are replenished in the Northwest.

 A final problem that our proposal addresses is the over harvest of salmon in the ocean. Extending the United States Exclusive Economic Zone (E.E.Z.) to include over half of the northern Pacific Ocean will reduce the number of countries involved in salmon fishing debates and will allow participating countries to establish more effective fish management practices. Further, extension of the E.E.Z. would allow entire salmon runs to be managed by single countries rather than dividing the responsibility of ecological management among different powers.

This proposal addresses the problems of habitat, hydropower, hatcheries, and harvest in an effective manner. We recognize that there are obvious difficulties contained within our plan: the coordination of water rights and in-stream flows between the states of Washington and Oregon, the engineering of a riverside channel that is over 150 miles in length, and the political dilemma of extending the E.E.Z. far beyond where it lies today. However, as is evident from the state of salmon today, and their prospects for the future, there are no easy answers. Solutions must be found if the salmon are to survive. Any solution would change many lifestyles in the Pacific Northwest, and/or be extremely costly. This proposal allows for the greatest number of interested parties to be satisfied with the outcome, changes the fewest number of lifestyles, and is economically feasible. Our solutions focus on making the salmon ecosystem as natural as possible. Many man-made solutions to the salmon crisis have been implemented, but with little success. It is time to try something that keeps salmon in the most natural environment possible for the duration of their lives.

REFERENCES

Chamberlain, Lynne, 6 September 1998, Salmon recovery must be based on common sense, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p. 25-6.

Corliss, Bryan, 4 October 1998a, Farmers, environmentalists tear down barriers, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p.25.

Corliss, Bryan, 4 October 1998b, River runs through centuries of change, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p.3, 28.

Corliss, Bryan, 4 October 1998c, Spiritual ties, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p. 25.

Corliss, Bryan and Brodie Farquhar, 4 October 1998, A river runs through us, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p. 1.

Kemp, Donna, 18 October 1998a, A river runs through us, in Walla Walla Union- Bulletin, p. 1.

Kemp, Donna, 18 October 1998b, Rancher sees river as a mixed blessing, in Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, p. 3.

Mighetto, Lisa and W.J. Ebel, 1994, Saving the salmon: a history of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' effort to protect anadromous fish on the Columbia and Snake Rivers: Seattle, Historical Research Associates, Inc., 262 p.

United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 1994, Columbia River salmon mitigation analysis system configuration study: phase I (main report).

USACE, 1995, Columbia River salmon mitigation analysis system configuration study: phase I (biological plan-Lower Snake River drawdown technical report, appendix G).

USACE, 1996a, Lower Snake River juvenile salmon migration feasibility study: system configuration study: phase II (interim status report).

USACE, 1996b, Salmon decision analysis: Lower Snake River feasibility study (final report): Portland, Harza Northwest, Inc.

USACE, 1997, Walla Walla River Watershed Reconnaissance Report: Oregon and Washington.

United States Department of State (USDoS), 1994, Commentary on the Law of the Sea Convention including the 1994 amendments; http://www.clark.net/pub/diplonet/ uscomment3.html, visited February, 1999.

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